Prof. Detlef Stolten is the Director of the Institute of Energy Research - Fuel Cells at the Research Center Juelich, Germany. Prof Stolten received his doctorate from the University of Technology at Clausthal, Germany. He served many years as a Research Scientist in the laboratories of Robert Bosch and Daimler Benz/Dornier. Since 1998 he has been holding the position of Director at the Research Center Juelich. Two years later he became Professor for Fuel Cell Technology at the University of Technology (RWTH) at Aachen. Prof. Stolten's
research focuses on electrochemical energy engineering including electrochemistry and energy process engineering of Electrolysis, SOFC and PEFC systems, i.e. cell and stack technology, process and systems engineering as well as systems analysis. Prof. Stolten is Chairman of the Implementing Agreement Advanced Fuel Cells, member of the board of the International Association of Hydrogen Energy (IAHE) and is on the advisory boards of the German National Organization of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells (NOW), and the journal Fuel Cells. He was chairman of the World Hydrogen Energy Conference 2010 (WHEC 2010).
Dr. Renzi Can Samsun is the head of Group Systems Technology for on-board power supply at the Institute of Energy and Climate Research at the Juelich Research Center. His research fields are high-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cell systems, fuel processing systems for fuel cells and modelling of energy systems.
Nancy Garland is a Technology Development Manager in the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Fuel Cell Technologies. She is responsible for managing National Laboratory R&D activities in fuel cells, including membranes, catalysts, MEAs, as well as characterization and analysis. She led a High Temperature Membrane Working Group with ~ 60 participants from academia, industry, and DOE National Laboratories.
Prior to coming to DOE, she was a Research Chemist at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory where she carried out experimental studies on chemical kinetics and dynamics. Dr. Garland is a member of the American Chemical Society and the Combustion Institute.
Preface XV
Part I Transportation 1
I-1 Propulsion 1
I-1.1 Benchmarks and Definition of Criteria 1
1 Battery Electric Vehicles 3
Bruno Gnörich and Lutz Eckstein
References 11
2 Passenger Car Drive Cycles 12
Thomas Grube
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Drive Cycles for Passenger Car Type Approval 13
2.3 Drive Cycles from Research Projects 14
2.4 Drive Cycle Characteristics 14
2.5 Graphic Representation of Selected Drive Cycles 16
2.6 Conclusion 21
References 21
3 Hydrogen Fuel Quality 22
James M. Ohi
3.1 Introduction 22
3.2 Hydrogen Fuel 23
3.3 Fuel Quality Effects 25
3.4 Fuel Quality for Fuel Cell Vehicles 25
3.5 Single Cell Tests 26
3.6 Field Data 26
3.7 Fuel Quality Verification 27
3.8 Conclusion 28
References 29
4 Fuel Consumption 30
Amgad Elgowainy and Erika Sutherland
4.1 Introduction 30
4.2 Hydrogen Production 31
4.3 Hydrogen Packaging 31
4.4 Hydrogen Consumption in FCEVs 32
4.5 Conclusion 34
References 34
I-1.2 Demonstration 37
I-1.2.1 Passenger Cars 37
5 Global Development Status of Fuel Cell Vehicles 39
Remzi Can Samsun
5.1 Introduction 39
5.2 Update on Recent Activities of Car Manufacturers 40
5.3 Key Data and Results from Demonstration Programs 41
5.4 Technical Data of Fuel Cell Vehicles 47
5.4.1 Daimler 47
5.4.2 Ford 47
5.4.3 GM/Opel 50
5.4.4 Honda 51
5.4.5 Hyundai/Kia 51
5.4.6 Nissan 52
5.4.7 Toyota 53
5.4.8 Volkswagen 55
5.5 Conclusions 57
References 58
6 Transportation China Passenger Cars 61
Yingru Zhao
6.1 Introduction 61
6.2 National R&D Strategy (20112015) 62
6.3 Government Policy 63
6.4 Published Technical Standards 63
6.5 Demonstrations 65
6.6 Commercialization Case of SAIC Motor 67
6.7 Conclusions 67
References 68
7 Results of Country Specific Program Korea 69
Tae-Hoon Lim
7.1 Introduction 69
7.2 FCV Demonstration Program 70
VI Contents
7.2.1 The 1st Phase of the FCV Demonstration Project 70
7.2.2 The 2nd Phase of the FCV Demonstration Project 70
7.3 Summary 72
8 GM HydroGen4 A Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle based on the Chevrolet Equinox 75
Ulrich Eberle and Rittmar von Helmolt
8.1 Introduction 75
8.2 Technology 76
8.3 Conclusions 84
Acknowledgments 85
References 86
I-1.2.2 Buses 87
9 Results of Country Specific Programs USA 89
Leslie Eudy
9.1 Introduction 89
9.2 FCEB Descriptions 90
9.3 SunLine Advanced Technology Fuel Cell Electric Bus 90
9.3.1 Fuel Economy 91
9.3.2 Availability 92
9.4 Zero Emission Bay Area Program 92
9.4.1 Fuel Economy 94
9.4.2 Availability 94
9.5 SunLine American Fuel Cell Bus 95
9.5.1 Fuel Economy 96
9.5.2 Availability 97
9.6 Conclusion 98
References 98
I-1.3 PEM fuel cells 99
10 Polymer Electrolytes 101
John Kopasz and Cortney Mittelsteadt
10.1 Introduction 101
10.2 Membrane Properties 102
10.2.1 Water uptake and Swelling 102
10.2.2 Protonic Conductivity 103
10.2.3 Permeability 104
10.2.4 Membrane Mechanical Properties and Durability 107
10.3 Conclusions 108
References 108
11 MEAs for PEM Fuel Cells 110
Andrew J. Steinbach and Mark K. Debe
11.1 Introduction 110
11.2 MEA Basic Components (PEMs, Catalysts, GDLs and Gaskets) 111
11.3 MEA Performance, Durability, and Cost Targets for Transportation 112
11.4 MEA Robustness and Sensitivity to External Factors 115
11.5 Technology Gaps 117
11.6 Conclusion 118
References 118
12 Gas Diffusion Layer 121
Sehkyu Park
12.1 Introduction 121
12.2 Macroporous Substrate 122
12.3 Microporous Layer 123
12.4 Characterization of GDL 124
12.5 Conclusion 126
References 127
13 Materials for PEMFC Bipolar Plates 128
Heli Wang and John A. Turner
13.1 Introduction 128
13.2 Composite BP Materials 130
13.3 Metallic BP Materials 131
13.3.1 Light Alloys 131
13.3.2 Stainless Steel Bipolar Plates 132
13.3.2.1 Metal-Based Coatings 132
13.3.2.2 Carbon/Polymer-Based Coatings 133
13.3.3 Remarks 133
Acknowledgments 133
References 133
14 Single Cell for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) 135
Hyoung-Juhn Kim
14.1 Introduction 135
14.2 Main Components of a Single Cell for a PEMFC 136
14.3 Assembly of a Single Cell 137
14.4 Measurement of a Single Cell Performance 138
14.5 Conclusions 139
References 139
I-1.4 Hydrogen 141
I-1.4.1 On board storage 141
15 Pressurized System 143
Rajesh Ahluwalia and Thanh Hua
15.1 Introduction 143
15.2 High Pressure Storage System 144
15.3 Cost 147
15.4 Conclusions 148
References 148
16 Metal Hydrides 149
Vitalie Stavila and Lennie Klebanoff
16.1 Metal Hydrides as Hydrogen Storage Media 149
16.2 Classes of Metal Hydrides 152
16.2.1 Interstitial Metal Hydrides 152
16.2.2 Magnesium and Magnesium-Based Alloys 153
16.2.3 Complex Metal Hydrides 154
16.2.3.1 Off-Board Reversible Metal Hydrides 157
16.3 How Metal Hydrides Could Be Improved 157
References 160
17 Cryo-Compressed Hydrogen Storage 162
Tobias Brunner, Markus Kampitsch, and Oliver Kircher
17.1 Introduction 162
17.2 Thermodynamic Principles 163
17.3 System Design and Operating Principles 167
17.4 Validation and Safety 169
17.5 Summary 172
References 173
I-1.4.2 On board safety 175
18 On-Board Safety 177
Rajesh Ahluwalia and Thanh Hua
18.1 Introduction 177
18.2 High Pressure Fuel Container System 179
18.3 Hydrogen Refueling Requirements and Safety 180
18.4 Conclusions 182
References 182
I-2 Auxiliary power units (APU) 183
19 Fuels for APU Applications 185
Remzi Can Samsun
19.1 Introduction 185
19.2 Diesel Fuel 186
19.2.1 Petroleum-Based Diesel Fuels 186
19.2.2 Non-Petroleum-Based Diesel Fuels 187
19.3 Jet Fuel 189
19.3.1 Petroleum-Based Jet Fuels 189
19.3.2 Non-Petroleum-Based Jet Fuels 190
19.4 Other Fuels 190
19.4.1 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) 190
19.4.2 Methanol 192
19.5 Conclusion 195
References 195
20 Application Requirements/Targets for Fuel Cell APUs 197
Jacob S. Spendelow and Dimitrios C. Papageorgopoulos
20.1 Introduction 197
20.2 DOE Technical Targets 198
20.2.1 Status and Targets of Fuel Cell APUs 198
20.2.2 Target Justification 198
20.2.2.1 Electrical Efficiency at Rated Power 199
20.2.2.2 Power Density 199
20.2.2.3 Specific Power 199
20.2.2.4 Factory Cost 200
20.2.2.5 Transient Response 200
20.2.2.6 Startup Time 200
20.2.2.7 Degradation with Cycling 200
20.2.2.8 Operating Lifetime 200
20.2.2.9 System Availability 201
References 201
21 Fuel Cells for Marine Applications 202
Keno Leites
21.1 Introduction 202
21.2 Possible Fuel Cell Systems for Ships 204
21.3 Maritime Fuel Cell Projects 205
21.4 Development Goals for Future Systems 206
21.5 Conclusions 206
References 207
22 Reforming Technologies for APUs 208
Ralf Peters
22.1 Introduction 208
22.2 Guideline 208
22.2.1 Chemical Reactions 208
22.2.2 Aspects of System Design 210
22.2.3 Catalysts in Fuel Processing 211
22.2.4 Reactor Development of Fuel Processing 213
22.2.5 Further Data Sets of Interest 219
22.2.6 Other Fuels 219
Appendix 22.A 220
Abbreviation 220
List of Symbols 221
Definitions 221
References 222
23 PEFC Systems for APU Applications 225
Remzi Can Samsun
23.1 Introduction 225
23.2 PEFC Operation with Reformate 226
23.3 Application Concepts 229
23.4 System Design 230
23.5 System Efficiency 232
23.6 System Test 232
23.7 Conclusion 233
References 233
24 High Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells 235
Werner Lehnert, Lukas Lüke, and Remzi Can Samsun
24.1 Introduction 235
24.2 Operating Behavior of Cells and Stacks 236
24.3 System Level 240
References 246
25 Fuel Cell Systems for APU. SOFC: Cell, Stack, and Systems 248
Niels Christiansen
References 255
Part II Stationary 257
26 Deployment and Capacity Trends for Stationary Fuel Cell Systems in the USA 259
Max Wei, Shuk Han Chan, Ahmad Mayyas, and Tim Lipman
26.1 Fuel-Cell Backup Systems 260
26.2 Fuel-Cell Combined Heat and Power and Electricity 262
References 269
27 Specific Country Reports: Japan 270
Tomio Omata
27.1 Introduction 270
27.2 Start of the Sales of Residential Fuel Cell Systems 271
27.3 Market Growth of the Ene-Farm 272
27.4 Technical Development of the Ene-Farm 272
27.4.1 SOFC-type Ene-Farm and Improvement of Performance 272
27.4.2 The Ene-Farm as an Emergency Electric Supply System 273
27.4.3 Ene-Farms for Nitrogen Rich City Gas 274
27.5 Sales of the Ene-Farm for Condominiums 274
27.6 Conclusions 274
References 275
28 Backup Power Systems 276
Shanna Knights
28.1 Introduction 276
28.2 Application and Power Levels 277
28.3 Advantages 277
28.4 Fuel Choice 278
28.5 Product Parameters 279
28.6 Economics 280
28.7 Conclusion 280
References 280
29 Stationary Fuel Cells Residential Applications 282
Iain Staffell
29.1 Introduction 282
29.2 Key Characteristics 283
29.2.1 Residential Energy Sector 283
29.2.2 Residential Fuel Cell Systems 283
29.3 Technical Performance 284
29.3.1 Efficiency 284
29.3.2 Degradation 285
29.3.3 Lifetime 286
29.3.4 Emissions 287
29.4 Economic and Market Status 288
29.4.1 Capital Costs 288
29.4.2 Sales Volumes 290
29.5 Conclusions 290
References 290
30 Fuels for Stationary Applications 293
Stephen J. McPhail
30.1 Introduction 293
30.2 Natural Gas 294
30.3 Biogas, Landfill Gas, and Biomethane 296
30.4 (Bio)ethanol 298
30.5 Hydrogen 300
References 302
31 SOFC: Cell, Stack and System Level 304
Anke Hagen
31.1 Introduction 304
31.2 Cell Concepts and Materials 305
31.3 Cell Designs 307
31.4 Stack Concepts 310
31.5 Stationary Systems 310
31.6 Performance and Durability Parameters 313
References 319
Part III Materials handling 321
32 Fuel Cell Forklift Systems 323
Martin Müller
32.1 Introduction 323
32.2 Forklift Classification 324
32.3 Load Profile of Horizontal Order Pickers 324
32.4 Energy Supply for Forklifts 326
32.5 Systems Setup and Hybridization 326
32.6 Cost Comparison of Different Propulsion Systems for Forklifts 328
References 332
33 Fuel Cell Forklift Deployment in the USA 334
Ahmad Mayyas, Max Wei, Shuk Han Chan, and Tim Lipman
33.1 Fuel Cell-Powered Material Handling Equipment 334
References 340
Part IV Fuel provision 343
34 Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis 345
Antonino S. Aricò, Vincenzo Baglio, Nicola Briguglio, Gaetano Maggio, and Stefania Siracusano
34.1 Introduction 345
34.2 Bibliographic Analysis of PEM Electrolysis versus Water Electrolysis 346
34.3 Electrocatalysts Used in PEM Water Electrolysis 347
34.4 Anode Supports for PEM Water Electrolysis 349
34.5 Membranes for PEM Electrolysis 349
34.6 Stack and System Costs in PEM Electrolysis 351
34.7 PEM Electrolysis Systems in Comparison with Competing Technologies 352
References 354
35 Power-to-Gas 357
Gerda Reiter
35.1 Introduction 357
35.2 Main Components and Process Steps 358
35.2.1 Water Electrolysis 358
35.2.2 CH4 Synthesis 360
35.2.3 CO2 Separation 361
35.3 Transport and Application of H2 and CH4 363
35.4 Current Developments: Pilot Plants 365
35.5 Conclusion 366
References 366
Part V Codes and standards 369
36 Hydrogen Safety and RCS (Regulations, Codes, and Standards) 371
Andrei V. Tchouvelev
36.1 Introduction 371
36.2 Hydrogen Safety 372
36.2.1 Flammability Limits and Ignition Energy 372
36.2.1.1 Unique Hydrogen Flammability Limits 372
36.2.1.2 Hydrogen Ignition Energy 372
36.2.2 Materials Compatibility 374
36.2.2.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement 374
36.2.2.2 Materials Suitability for Hydrogen Service 375
36.3 Hydrogen Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) International Activities 376
36.3.1 ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen Technologies 376
36.3.2 CEN and European Commission 376
36.3.3 HySafe and IEA HIA Hydrogen Safety Activities 377
36.4 Conclusions 377
Acknowledgments 377
References 378
Index 379
